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Folk healers, in England also known as cunning folk or (more rarely) as white witches are practitioners of folk medicine, folk magic, and divination within the context of the various traditions of folklore in Christian Europe (from at least the 15th up until at least the early 20th century). Names given to folk healers or magicians in parts of Western Europe include the French ''devins-guérisseurs'' and ''leveurs de sorts'', the Italian ''benandanti'' ("''good walkers''"), the Dutch ''toverdokters'' or ''duivelbanners'', the German ''Hexenmeister'' or ''Kräuterhexen'', the Spanish ''curanderos'', the Portuguese ''curandeiros/as'', ''benzedeiros/as'' or ''mulheres de virtude'' (this last one applies only to females, translating as "women of virtue"), the Danish ''kloge folk'',〔Davies 2003. p. 163.〕 Swedish ''klok gumma'' ("''wise old woman''") or ''klok gubbe'' ("''wise old man''"),〔http://www.wordgumbo.com/ie/ger/swe/fdsweeng.txt〕〔〔Signum svenska kulturhistoria, ''Stormaktstiden''〕〔Jan-Inge Wall, Hon var engång tagen under jorden〕〔''Wicked arts: witchcraft and magic trials in southern Sweden, 1635-1754'' By Per Sörlina〕〔''Witchcraft and magic in Europe: the 20th century''by Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra, Willem de Blécourt, Brian Levack, Ronald Hutton, Jean Sybil La Fontaine and Roy Porter, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999, ISBN 0-485-89106-9, ISBN 978-0-485-89106-5〕 and the Slavic ''Vedmak''. Some historians and folklorists have opted to apply the term "cunning folk" as an umbrella term for the entire range of the phenomenon.〔De Blécourt 1994.〕〔 ==Scandinavia== In Scandinavia the ''klok gumma'' ("wise woman") or ''klok gubbe'' ("wise man"), and collectively ''De kloka'' ("The Wise ones"), as they were known in Swedish, were usually elder members of the community who acted as folk healers and midwives as well as using folk magic such as magic rhymes.〔Jacob Christenssen (Swedish): Signums svenska kulturhistoria. Stormaktstiden (Signum Swedish Culturhistory. The Great Power Era) (2005)〕 In Denmark, they were called ''klog mand'' ("wise man") and ''klog kone'' ("wise woman") and collectively as ''kloge folk'' ("wise folk").〔''Healing by hand: manual medicine and bonesetting in global perspective'' Kathryn S. Oths, Servando Z. Hinojosa, Rowman Altamira, 2004, ISBN 0-7591-0393-3, ISBN 978-0-7591-0393-1. p.05〕 Many Norwegian〔 and Danish〔〔H.P. Hansen: Kloge Folk - Folkemedicin og overtro i Vestjylland (Rosenkilde og Bagger 1960)〕 practitioners of folk magic and medicine would have a copy of the "Svartebok" (or "black book"), a tome that, according to some, was written by ''Cyprianus'', that is, Archbishop Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus of Antioch,〔〔 and by others to have been the Sixth and Seventh books of the Bible (or "Books of Moses" as the Pentateuch is known in Norway) that were left out of the official Old Testament by the learned so that the common folk would not learn the knowledge held within the text.〔''Remedies and rituals: folk medicine in Norway and the New Land'' by Kathleen Stokker, Minnesota Historical Society, 2007, ISBN 0-87351-576-5, ISBN 978-0-87351-576-4. p.75-76〕 A formulary found in a "black book" recovered from a farm near Elverum contains many formulas such as one for a toothache that commands the user of the charm to write the words "Agerin, Nagerin, Vagerin, Jagerin, Ipagerin, Sipia" on a piece of paper using a new pen, cut the paper into three small pieces, place the first piece onto the tooth in the evening and in the morning spit the piece into the fire. This should then be repeated with the other pieces.〔''Remedies and rituals: folk medicine in Norway and the New Land'' by Kathleen Stokker, Minnesota Historical Society, 2007, ISBN 0-87351-576-5, ISBN 978-0-87351-576-4. p.78〕 Another charm used for helping a woman who is having a difficult labour says to take two white lily roots and give them to the mother to eat.〔 There is an old idea that it was "Klok gumma" who often fell victim to the Witch Trials in the 17th century, but this does not appear to be true. However, some "wise women" and "wise men" were punished, not for witchcraft but often under the indictment point of "superstition" (Swedish: ''"Vidskepelse"'').〔 In the 1670s, the wise man Johan Eriksson of Knutby was sentenced to seven gauntlet for "superstition", and again in the 1680s to nine.〔 Per Ericsson of Dalarna, who read the diseases in wine, was punished both in 1720 and 1726.〔 Brita Biörn of Gotland said in court that she learned to heal the sick when she spent some time in the underworld, and she was sentenced to prison terms in both 1722 and 1737.〔 The punishment of Sweden's "cunning folk" only seemed to have the opposite effect. Ericsson said that his clients had been coming in greater numbers after the rulings against him, and that he would be forced to hide if he was to obey the court and refrain from his practice, and in the Biörn case, the vicar complained that people from throughout the country came to seek her help, and relied on her as a God after her first sentence.〔 The sentences, in reality, had the effect of good advertising, and Brita's daughter and granddaughter's daughter were also healing women.〔 There are many examples of well-known "cunning folk" who were known far beyond their village boundaries, such as Ingeborg i Mjärhult in the 18th century and Kisamor and Gota-Lena in the 19th century. In the 16th century, Brigitta Andersdotter was often hired by Queen Margaret Leijonhufvud. In Norway some women such as Mor Sæther (1793–1851), Anna Brandfjeld (1810–1905) and Valborg Valland (1821–1903) achieved national fame, unusual for women of the time.〔 The customs persisted well into the 20th century, until the medical doctor became more accessible to the public.〔〔 In the 19th century, every neighbourhood in Norway had at least one folk-healer.〔''Remedies and rituals: folk medicine in Norway and the New Land'' by Kathleen Stokker, Minnesota Historical Society, 2007, ISBN 0-87351-576-5, ISBN 978-0-87351-576-4. p.23〕 Such beliefs in folk-medicine, magic, and the use of "black books" were taken by migrants to the Americas. However, many beliefs died out in Norwegian-American communities around the 1920s with many not having knowledge of the subject or of the "black book". Knowledge of these beliefs did last longer in Norway, even if they were not commonly believed in by Norwegians.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Cunning folk」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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